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This phenolic acid from the hydroxycinnamic acid family occurs in coffee, herbs, berries, olives, spices and many plant foods. It is not caffeine and does not cause coffee’s stimulant effect; its relevance is tied to polyphenols, antioxidant signaling, microbiome metabolites and the quality of the plant part of the diet.

A phenolic acid from coffee, herbs, berries, and vegetables; it is not caffeine, but a polyphenol related to chlorogenic acids, oxidative stress, and microbiota metabolism.

The umbrella name for vitamin D forms, including D2 and D3, is linked with calcium and phosphorus metabolism, bones, immune regulation and muscle function. Practical use depends on 25(OH)D level, dose, magnesium, vitamin K2, kidney function, sun exposure and excess risk.

The pungent compound in chili peppers activates TRPV1 receptors, influencing heat sensation, appetite, thermogenesis, pain signaling and mucosal response. Its usefulness depends on dose and tolerance; reflux, gastritis, irritable bowel symptoms and skin sensitivity require caution.

Organic compounds that include glucose, fructose, galactose, starch, sucrose, lactose and different fibers. For keto, the important issue is not only grams of carbohydrate, but also form: sugar, starch, fiber, polyols, processing level and blood-glucose response.

A group of heart muscle diseases can impair pumping function, rhythm stability and exercise tolerance. Nutrition, electrolytes and metabolic health may support care, but cardiomyopathy requires medical diagnosis, follow-up and treatment.

The network of heart, arteries, veins, capillaries, blood, and regulatory systems delivers oxygen, nutrients, and hormones while maintaining blood pressure and heat exchange. Vascular health depends on blood pressure, glucose, lipids, smoking, sleep, movement, inflammation, and diet quality.

A compound involved in transporting long-chain fatty acids into mitochondria, carnitine matters for energy metabolism, heart, muscle and liver function. Supplements are not automatic fat burners; effects depend on deficiency, form, dose, diet, training and mitochondrial context.

A group of plant pigments that give foods yellow, orange and red colors. Some carotenoids can serve as provitamin A, while others act as dietary antioxidant compounds and support the retina, skin and vascular protection.

These large neck vessels supply blood to the brain, so narrowing should be assessed through vascular risk factors and imaging rather than by symptoms alone. Blood pressure, smoking, diabetes, ApoB, inflammation, sleep, activity and diet all influence atherosclerosis risk, while significant stenosis needs medical follow-up.

The set of breakdown processes that converts nutrients and stored tissues into energy and metabolic intermediates. Catabolism is not bad by itself; problems arise with chronic underfeeding, inflammation, muscle loss and poor recovery.

Polyphenols from tea, cocoa, berries and some plants are linked with antioxidant defense, vascular function, inflammatory signaling and the microbiome. Their effect depends on product form, dose, processing, caffeine, gut tolerance and the overall diet.

The brain and spinal cord control movement, sensation, memory, emotion, autonomic regulation, and signal exchange between the body and the outside world.

A coffee and plant polyphenol that may influence antioxidant defenses, gut microbes, glucose handling, and vascular function; effects depend on roasting, dose, product form, and caffeine tolerance.

A nutrient required for liver fat export, bile, cell membranes, acetylcholine, and methylation; intake matters especially in pregnancy, fatty liver, and diets without eggs, liver, and fish.

The internal daily rhythm that coordinates sleep, wakefulness, hormones, body temperature, appetite, glucose handling, digestion, and recovery.

A central mitochondrial pathway where acetyl-CoA from fats, carbohydrates, and some amino acids is converted into reducing equivalents, energy potential, and metabolic intermediates.

An amino acid linked to the urea cycle and arginine synthesis; supplemental forms are mainly used for nitric oxide, blood flow, training performance, and ammonia handling.

Vitamin B12 is needed for the nervous system, red blood cell formation, methylation and fatty acid metabolism. Deficiency is often linked not to low-carbohydrate eating itself, but to poor absorption, vegan diets, age, metformin, proton pump inhibitors, autoimmune gastritis and stomach or intestinal surgery.

Polysaccharides and longer carbohydrate chains: starch, glycogen and different dietary fibers. Chemical complexity does not automatically make a food low-carb; bread, grains and potatoes can raise glucose quickly, while fiber and resistant starch behave differently.

This adrenal cortex hormone helps maintain blood pressure, glucose, wakefulness and anti-inflammatory control, but it should not be interpreted as a simple “stress hormone.” Timing, circadian rhythm, sleep, illness, medications, training, energy deficit and the reason for testing all matter; one value without context is weak evidence.

A stable synthetic form of vitamin B12 used in supplements and injections; it must be converted into active B12 forms and matters most when deficiency risk is present.

A keto variant that alternates strict low-carbohydrate days with planned carbohydrate refeeds, usually for sport, glycogen restoration, and high training demands.

A calculated value usually found by subtracting fiber from total carbohydrates, and sometimes subtracting part of sugar alcohols. It is useful in low-carb eating, but it is not a guaranteed blood-glucose response and must be checked against ingredients, serving size, and tolerance.